What is a Kleptocracy?

Kleptocracy is term referring to corrupt government leaders who embezzle public funds for their own political and self gain.

Kleptocracy is a government with corrupt leaders that use their power to exploit the people and natural resources of their own territory in order to extend their personal wealth and political powers. Typically, this system involves embezzlement of funds at the expense of the wider population.

Kleptocracy is different from a plutocracy (society that is ruled or controlled by people of great wealth or income) and oligarchy (a form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people distinguished by wealth, education, religious status etc.). A kleptocracy is a government ruled by corrupt politicians who use their political power to receive kickbacks, bribes, and special favors at the expense of the populace, or simply direct state resources to themselves, relatives or associates. Kleptocrats may use political leverage to pass laws that enrich them or their constituents and they usually circumvent the rule of law.

Kleptocracy is a term with negative connotations, used to define a form of leadership where senior government officials use their authority to embezzle public funds for self-gain and to solidify their political prominence. Kleptocracy is often practiced under autocratic governments where external supervision is mostly non-existent, and therefore the disbursement and use of public funds are dictated by the nation’s leadership. These corrupt government officials use the funds meant for the development of the country, for personal gain.

There are numerous examples of such governments around the world, where the nation’s leadership has accumulated mind-boggling amounts of wealth at the expense of the majority of the citizens. Kleptocracies are closely associated with military juntas, oligarchies, dictatorships, and other types of nepotism or autocratic regimes, where external oversight is nonexistent or is impossible. The absence of monitoring could be worsened by the corrupt officials who control the supply and means of distribution of public funds. Kleptocratic leaders treat the county’s resources as personal items and spend them on luxuries and extravagance, and many of them transfer the country’s funds to secret accounts in foreign countries.

Kleptocracy in Russia

Russia is often pointed out as an example of a modern kleptocracy, and the nation’s current president, Vladimir Putin is described as the “true definition of a kleptocratic leader.” While the astronomical rise of Vladimir Putin to the Russian political summit was fueled by promises of removing all oligarchies in the country, the president would later take up kleptocratic tendencies on attaining the presidency and began amassing wealth. In Putin’s regime, an estimated 35% of the country’s wealth is controlled by 110 people. Interestingly, the majority of these individuals are acquaintances and relatives of the president. President Vladimir Putin is himself believed to own assets worth $200 billion.

While corruption had always been a problem in Russia, the vice worsened during Putin’s presidency, with the country’s rank in the Corruption Perception Index plummeting to the 131st position out of 176 countries. Kleptocracy has been most profound during Putin’s second term as president where vices such as corruption and nepotism have been rampant in government. The president has been accused of misappropriating public funds, with his close friends and relatives benefiting from the unlawful budgetary expenditure. Critics believe that of the $50 billion used by Russia to host the 2014 Winter Olympics, half of it was used in making irregular payments to Putin’s associates.

Kleptocracy in Africa

Africa has many of the world’s kleptocratic leaders, who have driven their economies into ruin. Not surprising is the fact that most of Africa’s kleptocratic leaders ascended to their positions through military coups, and established autocratic governments. There is a common trend in Africa where the poorest and least developed countries are often kleptocracies, and illiterate people make up a large percentage of their respective populations. Many such African countries are endowed with natural resources such as precious metals and fossil fuels. Some scholars believe that foreign interference has had a responsibility in the establishing and thriving of kleptocracies in Africa, particularly in the 20th century.

Former Zaire (present-day Democratic Republic of Congo) leader, President Mobutu Sese Seko was among the most corrupt leaders of the 20th century. Under Mobutu’s leadership, Zaire’s economy had all but collapsed and experienced unprecedented hyperinflation. Zimbabwe’s longest-serving head of state, former president Robert Mugabe was a well-known kleptocrat. President Mugabe’s nepotism would ultimately become his undoing and led to his downfall. While democracies have replaced many former kleptocracies in Africa, the vice still lingers in the continent. Some see the South African government as a kleptocracy, and President Zuma has earned the reputation of engaging in nepotism, dishing out favors to his acquaintances. Another well-known kleptocrat in modern Africa is Uganda’s President Yoweri Museveni.

In 2011, South Sudan gained independence as a Kleptocratic nation. It was a militarized state characterized by profound corruption in its governance such that by the time it was independent, the political atmosphere was extremely expensive, and its revenue was all consumed by the military and the political patronage, and there was nothing left for institutional building, public services, or development. The shutdown of oil production in 2012, bankrupted the nation and whole systems in the country collapsed

Kleptocracy in the United States

The United States has often been portrayed as the model of true democracy, but surprisingly the American government has in recent years been labeled as a kleptocracy. President Donald Trump has been a polarizing figure in American politics, with his leadership style endearing him to some and earning him critics in equal measure. However, the fact remains that President Trump shares characteristics of other well-known kleptocratic leaders, with nepotism being manifested in the making of significant appointments during his presidency.

Since the beginning of his term, President Trump has been accused of muzzling the press and dishing out favors to family members and close friends. For instance, the president appointed Jared Kushner, his son-in-law, to a prime position in the White House. Many people felt Kushner was unqualified to serve as America’s Middle East envoy, but the president threatened media houses that raised the issue.

While the president is yet to do something that is explicitly outlawed by US laws, some of his actions on which Americans turn a blind eye, were unthinkable a few years ago. But President Trump did not start making such questionable appointments during his presidency. While still on the campaign trail, Donald Trump appointed Donald Trump Jr as his top campaign adviser, a position in which he had little experience. President Trump is also remembered for appointing, Ivana Trump, the daughter with his ex-wife, to manage Trump Castle casino regardless of her inexperience, and later hired her as a presidential advisor. Trump also hired the unequally inexperienced brother Robert Trump for the development of Trump Taj Mahal, a casino which soon went bankrupt.

The US constitution makes it impossible for President Trump to become a true kleptocrat, capable of appointing his wife as Vice President. However, such kleptocratic characteristics like nepotism are not exclusive to the Trump administration. President John F Kennedy infamously appointed his brother, Robert as the nation’s attorney general, a move that was met with bitter criticism.

Narco-economies

Narcokleptocracy, also known as narco-states or narco-economies, are nations where drug money has compromised the integrity of the government through the bribing of senior government officials. Using their bottomless accounts drug barons force the government to allow the illegal drug trade to be conducted within the country. Some countries that have been defined as narco-economies include Guinea-Bissau, Panama, Tajikistan, and Venezuela. Narco-economies share many characteristics of kleptocracies, since very few individuals holding influential positions in government, control most of the country’s wealth and leaving the majority to languish in poverty.

Effects of Kleptocracy

The funds misappropriated by kleptocratic regimes are meant for the provision of essential social services such as in health, education, food, and water. Therefore, the majority of the citizenry in such countries lives in deplorable conditions and lack basic amenities. Only a few individuals in senior government positions and their associates benefit from kleptocracies often through dealing with corrupt activities.

Kleptocracies often have a terrible reputation in the international scene, and hence lack foreign investments and therefore weaken the cross-border trade and the domestic market. Kleptocratic leaders misuse funds obtained from tax payments and engage in money laundering, which adversely affects the quality of life of the citizens in the whole country.

Net Worth of Some Kleptocratic Leaders

Transparency International, a German NGO that tries to fight corruption released in 2004 the list of the most corrupt and self-enriching leaders in the world and the amount of wealth they have amassed in US dollars. At the top of the list at the time was Suharto, the former president of Indonesia, who was estimated to have acquired wealth worth between $15 billion and $35 billion. Suharto was named the most corrupt world leader, and he made his family members and friends the heads of the state-run monopolies, and they, in turn, kicked back millions of dollars in tribute payments.

The second on the list was the former president of Philippines, Ferdinand Marcos who amassed wealth worth $10 billion by 1986, which was equivalent to $21.6 billion in 2014 rates. Marcos was known for running the most corrupt and undemocratic regimes in recent times from 1966 to 1986. In 1972, he passed the Martial law and made his wife Imelda an official who would appoint relatives and cronies to industrial positions and lucrative government jobs. He adopted Crony capitalism where private businesses were seized and handed to friends and relatives.

The third on the list was the former president of Zaire Mobutu Sese Seko a despot and kleptocrat who amassed wealth worth $5 billion. Other leaders on the list include Sani Abacha the former president of Nigeria who looted wealth from the country in the range of $2 billion to $5 billion. Former president of Yugoslavia Slobodan Milosevic amassed wealth worth $1 billion. Jean-Claude Duvalier the former leader of Haiti, who was also known as Baby Doc is thought to have looted to the tune of between $300 million and $800 million.

source https://fourteen.online/what-is-a-kleptocracy/

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What are the Hieroglyphics?

Egyptian hieroglyphs were the writing system used in ancient Egypt.

A hieroglyph was a character of the ancient Egyptian writing system. Logographic scripts that are pictographic in form in a way reminiscent of ancient Egyptian are also sometimes called “hieroglyphs”. In Neoplatonism, especially during the Renaissance, a “hieroglyph” was an artistic representation of an esoteric idea, which Neoplatonists believed actual Egyptian hieroglyphs to be. The word hieroglyphics refer to a hieroglyphic script.

The Egyptians invented the pictorial script. The appearance of these distinctive figures in 3000 BCE marked the beginning of Egyptian civilization. Though based on images, Egyptian script was more than a sophisticated form of picture-writing. Each picture/glyph served three functions: (1) to represent the image of a thing or action, (2) to stand for the sound of a syllable, and (3) to clarify the precise meaning of adjoining glyphs. Writing hieroglyphs required some artistic skill, limiting the number chosen to learn it. Only those privileged with an extensive education (i.e. the Pharaoh, nobility and priests) were able to read and write hieroglyphs; others used simpler ‘joined-up’ versions: demotic and hieratic script.

Egyptian hieroglyphics is one of the earliest writing systems in the world, with the earliest exhibits dating back to the 4th millennium in the Early Bronze Age. While the writing system is synonymous with the era of the Pharaohs, it predates that period of Egyptian history by several centuries. The introduction of hieroglyphics was one of the hallmarks of human civilization, whose use (among other ancient writing systems) ushered humanity from the prehistoric era to written history. The hieroglyphics enjoyed widespread use in Egypt for centuries until the writing system died off entirely in the 5th century, triggered by the ban of pagan temples in Egypt by Emperor Theodosius I. The writing system remained a mystery for many centuries thereafter, until it was accurately deciphered by Jean-Francois Champollion in 1822, with assistance from the then newly-discovered Rosetta Stone. Hieroglyphics are categorized into three distinct types of glyphs; determinatives, phonetics, and logographs. Egyptian hieroglyphics (1,070 characters) are recognized under the Unicode Standard, after being added into the standard in 2009.

Beginnings

Ancient Egypt witnessed many breakthroughs in culture and technology during the Naqada III era, dated between the 33nd and 31st centuries BCE. Many historians agree that the Naqada III era was the time when the origin of the hieroglyphics as a form of written communication was used. The oldest versions of hieroglyphics in Ancient Egypt are dated back to this era. However, few hieroglyphic exhibits predate the Naqada III era, some going as far back as the 41st century BCE during the Gerzean era. These ancient examples are known as proto-hieroglyphics. Besides the introduction of hieroglyphics, the Naqada III era also saw Ancient Egypt’s first royal cemeteries, the earliest documented application of serekh art, and arguably the world’s first irrigation system. The hieroglyphics writing system in Egypt was itself predated by an earlier writing system from Mesopotamia known as a Sumerian script. Some scholars even believe the Sumerian script inspired the origin of hieroglyphics. Such claims are supported by Ancient Egypt’s proximity to Sumerian Mesopotamia, with the two ancient civilizations possibly engaging in trade. By the Second Dynasty, the use of hieroglyphics had become widespread all over Egypt, with the earliest complete sentence written in the script being dated back to this period.

Evolution

Hieroglyphics continued to be used in Ancient Egypt for centuries after it was introduced in the Naqada III era, and gradually evolved and became more simplified as its usage spread in the kingdom. An estimated 800 hieroglyphics were in use, in the years between ancient Egypt’s Old Kingdom and the New Kingdom. The Late Period saw the rise of other related glyph writing systems; hieratic and demotic glyphs, whose simplicity endeared them to Egyptians, who by then had shifted to writing on papyrus. The use of hieroglyphics in Egypt persisted even during the Greco-Roman era when the number of hieroglyphics had risen to 5,000.

Decline

Early Greeks and Romans were of the belief that hieroglyphics had religious significance, and therefore thought that understanding the meaning of the writings would give one mystical and magical knowledge. In 391, during Roman Emperor Theodosius I’s reign over Egypt, all non-Christian places of worship in Egypt were closed, a directive that signaled the end of hieroglyphics’ monumental usage.

Historic Decoding Attempts

The last documented authentic hieroglyphic writing is dated to have been written in 394, known as the “Graffito of Esmet-Akhom.” By this time, even native Egyptians had little knowledge in reading hieroglyphics. Nonetheless, a 5th-century book known as the “Hieroglyphica” written by Horapollo, a priest, delt in deciphering ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics. The book had an impressive degree of accuracy in interpreting about 200 hieroglyphics symbols. Other later attempts to decipher hieroglyphics were witnessed in the 9th and 10th centuries by Arab scholars Ibn Wahshiyya and Dhul-Nun al-Misri. In the 17th century, linguists and historians from Europe also became immersed in the daunting task. Athanasius Kircher, credited for inspiring the rise of Egyptology, published his famous “Lingua Aegyptiaca Restituta” in 1643, in which he made a detailed analysis of the writing system. Despite the increased interest from scholars from all over the world, the accurate deciphering of hieroglyphics proved to be a near-impossible task, until a discovery was made in 1799.

The Rosetta Stone

The Rosetta Stone is a large granodiorite rock currently exhibited at the British Museum, which bears the inscription of a royal decree, written in three different writing systems; Egyptian hieroglyphics, demotic script, and ancient Greek script. The current exhibit weighs 1,680 pounds and is just but a piece of the original Rosetta Stone. The Rosetta Stone features the Memphis decree, written in 196 BCE under the instructions of King Ptolemy V, of the Ptolemaic dynasty. While the stele was discovered in the town of Rosetta by French troops in July 1799, historians believe that the stone was originally domiciled in a temple near Sais. The stele is believed to have been moved from the temple in the 15th century and used in the construction of a fortress in the site where it would later be rediscovered. Rosetta Stone is neither the only nor the earliest trilingual stele, as there were older and better preserved multilingual steles discovered soon after that. Egyptologists used these older steles to obtain a complete representation of the missing fragments of the Rosetta Stone. Nonetheless, the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in the late 18th century was most instrumental in the deciphering of Egyptian hieroglyphics and gave scholars better insight into ancient Egyptian culture. Before the discovery, the interpretation of hieroglyphics was, for the most part, vague and inaccurate. Scholars relied heavily on the bottom Greek text on the stele to decode the other languages, as Ancient Greek language was known to them. That notwithstanding, the earliest translations were inaccurate as the scholars struggled to deduce the historical context of the inscriptions.

Related Writing Systems

Egyptian hieroglyphics is often regarded as the ancestor of all alphabets used in modern communication, as it inspired the establishment of the original alphabet, from which the Latin alphabet was formed. Hieroglyphics brought forth the Demotic writing system and the Cursive hieroglyphs, both of which were popular during the Pharaonic period of ancient Egypt.

source https://fourteen.online/what-are-the-hieroglyphics/

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The World’s Oldest Civilizations

The world’s oldest civilizations include Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, and Roman Civilization.

In the course of human evolution, the practice of living in a group with mutual understanding and dependency has become a very useful and practical lifestyle, and from small isolated groups, larger communities have formed. Then came societies which in time became civilizations. How human mentality and psychology led to this development is still a popular topic among historians and anthropologists, and a major discussion for another day. For now, let’s talk about some of the oldest civilizations to have ever existed in the world. We are talking about the civilizations that we know existed for real, unlike the ones that are shrouded in myth such as Atlantis, Lemuria, and Rama to name a few. To correctly list the oldest civilizations in chronological order, it is necessary to go back to the very cradle of civilization.

Archeologists and historians have made it possible for us to understand the events and cultures that have shaped our society today through the discovery of fossils, artifacts, and ruined cities that are linked to our ancestors. Through their findings, the origin and growth of civilization have been established. Although some civilizations like Atlantis and Rama are shrouded by myths and legends, others actually existed in the world. It is nearly impossible to rank civilizations based on importance since each was significant in shaping the world. However, it is possible to rank them in chronological order. Below are 10 of the oldest civilizations in the world.

10. Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia was the first civilization to emerge in human history. The area was set between Tigris and Euphrates rivers and lies between Asian Minor and the Persian Gulf. The region is known for its fertile agricultural land. The civilization dates back to 10,000 BC when people around the area found the concept of agriculture and began domesticating animals. Mesopotamia gave birth to written literature and several other inventions such as art and culture and trade. The timeline of the ancient Mesopotamia is estimated to be around 3300 BC to 750 BC with the Babylonians, Sumerians, and Assyrians playing key roles in the civilization.

9. Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt civilization took place between 3100 BC and 2686 BC. It is the most famous and admired culture in the world. The culture was developed along the banks of River Nile. The magnificent pyramids are some of the evidence of the once-booming culture along the river bank and act as a reminder of the existence of a powerful Empire in the Egyptian desert. The Egyptian civilization resulted from the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by the first Pharaoh. Apart from the pyramids, the civilization gave birth to embalming of dead bodies into mummies, solar calendars, and so much more. The vibrant Egyptian culture, art, and architecture that we know today is linked to the Egyptian civilization.

8. Roman Civilization

The Roman civilization dates back to the 6th Century BC. Although the foundation of ancient Rome is surrounded by myths and legends, it became so powerful that it took control over the land surrounding the present-day Mediterranean Sea. The early Romans were ruled by kings but after seven kings, they took over power and turned into a republic. Rome witnessed the rise and fall of some of the powerful emperors such as Julius Caesar and Augustus. Roman civilization gave birth to politicians, statesmen, writers, and soldiers. The thumbprint of Rome is still evident in Europe with classical sites still attracting tourists.

7. Norte Chico

Norte Chico civilization was a complex society in the Pre-Columbian era that was made up of over 30 main population regions in the modern Norte Chico in Peru. The civilization was at its peak between 4th and 2nd millennium BC. The first city was formed around 3500 BC in the Fortaleza region. However, from around 3100 BC onwards, communal construction and a wide spread human settlement became very apparent lasting to around 1800 BC. The Norte Chico civilization took place along the banks of three rivers namely Pativilca, Fortaleza, and Supe. The river valleys have large clusters of sites known for their immense architecture. The monumental architecture is considered as the major achievement of the civilization.

6. Mayan

The Mayan culture began alongside the Shang Dynasty. The Mayans lived from around 1200 BC to 250 BC in areas around Central America and Mexico, the present day Guatemala, Salvador, Mexico, Belize, and Honduras. The Ancient Mayan civilization flourished around 2600 BC. Once established, the civilization went on to become one of the most complex civilizations that were characterized by a population boom of about 19 million people at its peak. The Mayans devised their method of writing by 700 BC and used the writings to create a solar calendar on stones. They were gifted astronomers who calculated dates by studying the movement of the heavens.

5. Aztecs

Aztecs were not considered ancient civilization by European standard. However, they were among the earliest and most organized and powerful people of the Americas. They came into the scene around the time when Incas were beginning to assert their dominance in South America. They were mostly based in present-day Mexico but also stretched into Central America. Their rise almost coincided with the fall of the Mayans. Aztec civilization was at its peak in the early 1500s.

4. Indus Valley Civilzation

The Indus Valley civilization, also known as Harappan civilization, began 5,300 years ago. It flourished in areas that presently extend from Afghanistan to Pakistan and India. Indus Valley civilization is one of the three early civilizations of the Old World along the Egyptian and Mesopotamia civilizations. The people of the Indus Valley settled around the Indus River basin. The civilization lasted from 2600 BC to 1900 BC and was characterized by a technologically advanced urban culture. The people were skilled mathematicians, developing accurate means of measuring length, mass, and time. They were also gifted in weaponry and pottery work as evident in their culture which was rich in arts and crafts.

3. Jiahu

Jiahu settlement was situated in the central plain of ancient China. The inhabitants of the settlements developed some of the aspects of the Chinese culture. The people were mainly rice farmers but are mostly known for producing the world’s oldest wine. Some of the oldest musical items such as flutes have also been linked to them. The earliest forms of Chinese writings can be traced back to the Jiahu. They had distinct markings on the artifacts which indicate that they used signs rather than systematic writing.

2. Aboriginal Australians

Although Mesopotamia civilization is considered the oldest in the world’s history, some researchers believe that the Aboriginal Australian is the oldest. The Aborigines can be traced back to 75,000 years ago but became a genetically distinct group about 50,000 years ago. It is believed that they first settled in Australia approximately 40,000 years ago and are considered the direct ancestors of the present-day Australians. Some of the latest discoveries indicate that the Aborigines practiced cremation.

1. Inca

Inca Empire grew to become the largest empire in South America during the Pre-Columbian era. The civilization flourished between 1438 AD and 1532 AD around present-day Peru. Ecuador, and Chile. Its administrative capital was located in Cusco or present-day Peru. The Incas were devoted to Sun God and had a king called “Sapa Inca” (child of the Sun). The city of Cusco resembled a puma. Incas were great builders who built fortresses and sites including Machu Picchu and Cusco itself that still stands to date.

source https://fourteen.online/the-worlds-oldest-civilizations/

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The Clash of Civilizations

The Clash of Civilizations was a controversial theory developed in the 1990s that warned of world wars caused by different cultural ideas.

The Clash of Civilizations is a thesis that people’s cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold War world. The American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington argued that future wars would be fought not between countries, but between cultures. It was proposed in a 1992 lecture at the American Enterprise Institute, which was then developed in a 1993 Foreign Affairs article titled “The Clash of Civilizations?”, in response to his former student Francis Fukuyama’s 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man. Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.

The phrase itself was earlier used by Albert Camus in 1946, by Girilal Jain in his analysis of the Ayodhya dispute in 1988, by Bernard Lewis in an article in the September 1990 issue of The Atlantic Monthly titled “The Roots of Muslim Rage” and by Mahdi El Mandjra in his book “La première guerre civilisationnelle” published in 1992. Even earlier, the phrase appears in a 1926 book regarding the Middle East by Basil Mathews: Young Islam on Trek: A Study in the Clash of Civilizations (p. 196). This expression derives from “clash of cultures”, already used during the colonial period and the Belle Époque.

The history of the world is rife with internal and external conflicts. However, not every one of these wars could be called a “clash of civilization”.

The Clash of Civilization was a 1996 book written by American political scientist Samuel Huntington. In brief, the book states that religious and cultural differences will be the key starting point of conflicts among different groups in the world after the Cold War. The book accuses Islamic extremism in particular as the biggest threat to the peace of the world.

This theory has been very controversial since its inception. An outline of the theory and its main criticisms are available below.

What Is a Civilization?

There are many types of civilizations found around the world – however, “western” culture and Islamic culture have been singled out as two of the world’s most encompassing. In general, the Western world comprises of Europe and other places that Europeans had settled in the past such as Canada, Australia, and America while the Islamic world is mainly concentrated in North Africa and the Middle East. In his book, Huntington paid a lot of attention to these two worlds and extensively described them explaining how the two could cause conflicts in the world.

Why Do Civilizations Clash?

Samuel Huntington believed that there were aspects of both Islamic and Christian (western) culture that were destined to clash with one another. This is particularly because of the “all-or-nothing” nature of religions, were followers believe that only their faith is the right one and use it to justify acts which could even turn violent.

Huntington also believed that civilizations clash because they are separated from one another by language, tradition, culture, history, and religion. In terms of the clash between Christianity and Islam, Huntington stressed that clash is unavoidable because the two main religions (Islam and Christianity) keep holding to the claim that they are “only true religion” in the world. Additionally, Huntington asserted that while the world shrinks with globalization, interactions all over the world increase, intensifying what Huntington calls “civilizational consciousness”: the know-how of the differences among commonalities and civilizations inside the civilization.

How Can a Clash of Civilizations Be Avoided?

Samuel Huntington proposed three types of general actions that non-western civilization can use in response to countries in the western region. One is that the non-western countries can try to achieve isolation so that they can maintain their values and protect themselves from invasion by the west. Secondly, the non-western countries could accept and be part of the western values.

Additionally, through an economic transformation, countries outside the western world can attempt to balance western power. While still maintaining their values, they can cooperate with other non-western countries to come up with military power and economic cooperation. Huntington believed that accumulating the power of non-western civilizations and putting them together could push the west to cultivate a better know-how of the fundamentals of the culture behind other civilizations. In that regard, western civilization will stop been regarded as “universal” as different civilizations will be able to coexist and come together to shape the future world.

Criticism of the Clash of Civilizations

The clash of civilizations has garnered plenty of criticism. The denunciation of the clash of civilization by different individuals can be organized under three sub-headings: ethical, methodological, and epistemological critiques.

Epistemological Critique

This critique condemns the clash of civilizations for its elitist, realist, and orientalist outlook. This criticism tears about the assumption of the persistent probability of war between civilizations, which it says shows a fear that is embedded in political realism.

The critique also points out how the language of “them” and “us” is deeply rooted in Huntington’s thesis, creating a sense of otherness which can open the door to prejudice.

Methodological Critique

This critique states that Huntington neglects to consider the internal dynamics and myriad complexities of Islam, as well as the Muslim world at large. This critique states that the clash of civilizations theory is an overgeneralization and is selective.

Ethical Critique

The ethical critique rebukes the immoral importance of the entire thesis. It claims that the clash of civilization is a decided thesis that aids a particular interest and is not helpful in predicting world conflicts.

The post The Clash of Civilizations appeared first on Gradaxis.

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What is Regionalism?

What is Regionalism? Regionalism is a political ideology that favors a specific region over the greater area.

In politics, regionalism is a political ideology focusing on the “development of a political or social system based on one or more” regions and/or the national, normative or economic interests of a specific region, group of regions or another subnational entity, gaining strength from or aiming to strengthen the “consciousness of and loyalty to a distinct region with a homogeneous population”, similarly to nationalism. More specifically, “regionalism refers to three distinct elements: movements demanding territorial autonomy within unitary states; the organization of the central state on a regional basis for the delivery of its policies including regional development policies; political decentralization and regional autonomy”.

Regions may be delineated by administrative divisions, culture, language and religion, among others.

What Is Regionalism?

Regionalism is defined as a political ideology that favors a specific region over a greater area. It usually results due to political separations, religious geography, cultural boundaries, linguistic regions, and managerial divisions. Regionalism emphasizes on developing the administrative power and swaying the available or some inhabitants of a region. Activists of regionalism claim that instituting the governing bodies and civil authorities within an area, at the expense of a national regime, will significantly increase local populations by improving the local economies through the distribution of resources and execution of local policies and strategies.

What Is the Difference Between Regionalism, Autonomism, and Nationalism?

The three terms usually are interconnected concepts but they differ in their meanings and in some cases, they are antonyms to each other. For example regionalism in Spain is said to have strong association with nationalism. On the other hand, in Italy regionalism means federalism but is the antonym of “nationalism”. Federalism is well-defined as the distribution of power in a government among a central authority and the component units; this is criminal behavior and is thus the complete opposite of nationalism. Movements or parties that are championing for liberation repeatedly demand for autonomy. Therefore autonomism can be defined as a movement or belief towards self-governance. There are several regional parties across the globe, but the most recognized ones include the Coalition Avenir Quebec and Parti Québécois located in Quebec, Canada and the National Liberation Movement of Angola.

It’s not necessarily that political parties that are regional are always campaigning for greater autonomy or federalism. Most of these parties mostly cannot get enough votes to form a government or be politically influential. They, therefore, create coalitions or seek to be part of the government. In most nations, the advance of regionalist legislation might be a preface to additional demands for bigger autonomy and even full split-up, especially when tribal, traditional and financial differences are present.

What Are the Merits of Regionalism?

Since regionalism is a political ideology that only favors a specific region, its impact may affect the entire society or just a segment of the community. Regionalism can impact a region’s economy through various ways. A well-formulated trade bloc can raise productivity and economic welfare in its associate countries by enhancing consumer choice and growing the competition that producers encounter. Dropping tariff barriers expands markets and gives more efficient producers access into states where their prices had been exaggerated by duties and other trade barriers.However, it is important to note that trade blocs easily add up instead of removing distortions and trade efficiency.

In regionalism, it is essential to note that economic profits do not only come from trade as some benefits may also come as a result of cooperation in investment and financial activities. Economic impacts of regionalism can be categorized into different classes, those effects arising from trade, effects arising due to investment and monetary cooperation. Trade-related consequences have its positive impact in that regional integration entails the promotion of free trade among the associate countries of a local organization. The main reason for the benefits from trade is that the universal, unrestricted trade permits buyers and organizations to buy from the cheapest source of supply; this ensures that production is located according to comparative advantage.

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The Oldest Religion in the World?

It is incredibly hard to pinpoint the founding date of any religion. However, it is generally believed that Hinduism is one of the oldest religion in the world.

Religion has been a factor of the human experience throughout history, from pre-historic to modern times. The bulk of the human religious experience pre-dates written history. Written history (the age of formal writing) is only c. 5000 years old. A lack of written records results in most of the knowledge of pre-historic religion being derived from archaeological records and other indirect sources, and from suppositions.

Most religions claim their teachings have existed since the beginning of the world or the dawn of human civilization. Several major religions of the world like Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism are linked to a prominent spiritual leader or prophet who laid the framework of the faith. The origins of such religions are usually traced to the lifetime of these prophets. Others appear to have risen out of an amalgamation of spiritual beliefs and ritualistic practices of a section of people which have been promoted by one or more spiritual leaders. Most traditional religions have such an origin.

Creating a list of the world’s oldest religions is not an easy task. The religious experience of humans predates written history. Much of the knowledge of pre- historic religions have been derived from suppositions, archeological records, and other indirect sources that are subject to debate. However, based on common scholarly beliefs, the following are the oldest religions in the world:

The World’s Oldest Religion

Hinduism, The World’s Oldest Religion

Hinduism is believed to have the oldest roots among all religions. It has no single founder. It is often described as a “way of life” and is widely practiced in India and other parts of the Indian subcontinent as well as parts of Southeast Asia. Scholars mention that Hinduism is an amalgamation of various Indian traditions and cultures. A broad range of philosophies guide the practitioners of this religion. There are numerous divisions and schools within Hinduism. Shared concepts, common pilgrimage sites, similar rituals, and shared textual resources bind all of them under the umbrella of Hinduism.

Although it is difficult to ascertain the exact origin of this religion, it is roughly estimated to have formally started between 2300 B.C. and 1500 B.C. in the Indus Valley. During this time, the Indo-Aryans migrated to the Indus Valley. The cultures of these people and indigenous inhabitants then blended to give rise to a new faith. The initial years of Hinduism were defined as the “Vedic Period” when the Vedas guided the way of life of the people. It lasted from about 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C. The Epic, Puranic, and Classic Period followed and lasted from 500 B.C. to 500 A.D. Deity worship became more common during this time.

Hinduism flourished during the Medieval Period that stretched from 500 to 1500 A.D. Hinduism was adopted by a vast majority of people in the Indian subcontinent and beyond. Hinduism suffered a setback during the Muslim Period from about 1200 to 1757. The Muslim rulers restricted the practice of Hinduism, destroyed temples, and force-converted many to Islam.

From 1757 to 1848 when the British ruled India, Hindus were allowed to practice their religion with minimum interference. However, in the later years of British Raj, Christian missionaries attempted to convert Hindus and westernize the Indian society.

During India’s independence, British India was partitioned into Muslim-major Pakistan and Hindu-major India. A lot of bloodshed followed this partition.

Today, Hinduism is the third largest religion in the world. It has around 1.15 billion followers that account for about 15% of the global population. Hinduism is the religion of the majority in India, Nepal, and Mauritius. Significant numbers of Hindu communities are also present worldwide.

Judaism, The Oldest Monotheistic Religion

Judaism is the world’s second-oldest religion. However, it is the oldest of the monotheistic religions. Judaism formally started roughly around 690 BC but events leading to its establishment started much earlier. Followers of the religion have faith in one God. Jews believe that prophets act as the medium of communication between God and the common people. The Tanakh or the “Hebrew Bible” is the Jewish sacred text. The first of the five books of the Tanakh is called the Torah. It outlines laws for Jews to follow.

According to the Torah, Abraham, a Hebrew man, is the founder of Judaism as God revealed himself to Abraham. The descendants of Abraham are thus the chosen ones. Isaac and Jacob, the son and grandson of Abraham are central figures in Jewish history. Their descendants became known as Israelites. Another prophet named Moses is also revered by the Jews. He is believed to have rescued Israelites from Egypt. According to scriptures, God communicated the Ten Commandments to Moses at Mount Sinai, an important pilgrimage site for Jews today. The first holy Temple of the Jews was built in Jerusalem during the rule of King David’s son Solomon at around 1000 B.C.

Over the centuries, the Jews were persecuted many times for their religious beliefs. The worst such event was termed the Holocaust when over 6 million Jews were killed by the Nazis.

Today, the world has around 14 million Jews. Most of these people live in Israel and the United States.

Evolution Of Religions And The Rise Of Atheism

Throughout human history, many religions sprang to life. However, only a few survived to emerge as major religions of the world. Today, globalization has a major effect on the evolution of new religions. The intense mingling of cultures has diluted the stringent and conservative religious beliefs of the younger generations across the world. They are more receptive of other faiths than ever before. Atheism is also on the rise in the modern-day, especially in countries with multicultural populations. In North America and Europe, the “nones” or those who are religiously unaffiliated are the second largest group when the population is grouped by religion. Predictions state that as the world “modernizes,” religions might fade out altogether. Only time will tell whether this happens or newer, dynamic religions emerge to captivate even the “nones.”

What is the Oldest Religion in the World?

It is generally believed that Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion.

What is the Oldest Religion in the World?

Rank	Religion	Approximate Year of Founding
1	Hinduism	2300 BCE
2	Judaism	640 BCE
3	Zoroastrianism	600 BCE
4	Buddhism	563 BCE
5	Confucianism	551 BCE
6	Jainism	527 BCE
7	Shinto	300 BCE
8	Christianity	1 CE
9	Taoism	142 CE
10	Islam	570 CE

The post The Oldest Religion in the World? appeared first on Gradaxis.

source https://gradaxis.com/the-oldest-religion-in-the-world/

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Worlds Top Worst Countries For Human Trafficking

Human trafficking is a multi-billion dollar business and one of the fastest-growing illegal industries.

Human trafficking is a multi-billion dollar enterprise, and it’s one of the fastest-growing illicit industries in the world. Each year, the U.N. marks World Day Against Trafficking in Persons, which falls on July 30 this year, to help raise awareness. The U.S. State Department annually investigates more than 100 countries for its Trafficking in Persons report. In the 2017 report, 23 countries were classified as Tier 3, the lowest classification for countries that “do not fully meet the Trafficking Victims Protection Act’s minimum standards and are not making significant efforts to do so.” Here’s a look at five of the countries that are classified among the worst human trafficking offenders.

Four countries have appeared on the annual Trafficking in Persons report as Tier 3 countries consistently from 2011 to 2018. These countries are Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Iran, and North Korea. Central African Republic, Mauritania, and Syria have featured in the Tier 3 category in seven out of the eight years. Algeria, DR Congo, Guinea-Bissau, Papua New Guinea, Russia, and Venezuela have been listed as Tier 3 in six out of eight years.

Worst Countries for Human Trafficking

Equatorial Guinea

Equatorial Guinea has consistently featured on this list from 2011 to 2018. Women in Equatorial Guinea are highly vulnerable to sex trafficking. The practice of using forced labor is also common in the country. A large number of immigrant and local women are often exploited for sex while men are forced to work in oil mines.

Eritrea

Eritrea is a major source of human trafficking. The victims are subjected to forced labor. Thousands of Eritreans who have fled their country in search of better living conditions and economic opportunities have fallen prey to human traffickers. The government of Eritrea also requires persons between 18 and 40 years to take part in forced labor as part of national service for at least 18 months. Most people are, however, made to serve indefinitely under unfavorable conditions such as torture and detention.

Iran

Iranian citizens are vulnerable to trafficking both within and outside the country. Reports have surfaced about a rise in the number of young Iranians as sex workers in the UAE. Passports of these victims are often confiscated leaving them completely helpless in a foreign country. Many Iranian women living along the Iran-Turkey border are also vulnerable to cross-border sex trafficking.

North Korea

North Korea is a source country for victims who are subjected to sex trafficking and forced labor. Within the country, forced labor is part of political repression and one of the pillars of the economic system. The citizens are subjected to forced labor through assigned work. Approximately 120,000 people are held in camps in the country. Government oppression has forced thousands to flee the country, making them vulnerable to trafficking.

The Central African Republic

CAR is both a source and transit country for persons, especially children, subjected to sex trafficking and forced labor. Most victims of human trafficking in the Central African Republic are citizens exploited within the country. Other victims are transported to neighboring countries such as Nigeria, DRC, Chad, and Cameroon. The political instability and displacement of over one million people have increased the vulnerability of children, men, and women to trafficking.

Mauritania

The majority of the people subjected to slavery practices in Mauritania are children and adults from the Afro-Mauritanian and Black Moor communities. The victims are forced to work without pay. Mauritanian girls and women who are recruited by foreign agencies as domestic workers are often subjected to sex trafficking in the Gulf and Saudi Arabia. Some are forced into marriages by travel agencies and brokers both in the country and in the Middle East.

Syria

Human trafficking in Syria continues to deteriorate due to the ongoing civil war in the country. More than half of the Syrian population has been displaced and thousands killed since the beginning of the protest. Syrians who are in refugee camps are extremely vulnerable to trafficking, especially children who have been forced to early marriage and forced labor.

Algeria

Algeria act as a transit route for people subjected to trafficking. It is also, to a lesser extent, a destination for the trafficked persons. Most often, men and women enter Algeria voluntarily and with the help of smugglers with the hope of traveling to Europe. However, some of these people become victims of trafficking and are forced into prostitution and unskilled labor. At least 10,000 people in Algeria are at risk of trafficking.

Guinea-Bissau

Trafficked persons from Guinea-Bissau are subjected to prostitution and forced labor. The country is both a source and destination for West African boys who are subjected to forced labor. Most of the boys in Guinea-Bissau attend Quranic schools. Some of the marabouts who teach these boys force them to beg around the school and in the neighborhood. Most traffickers are men from the regions of Gabu and Bafata.

Russia

Over 5 million migrants in Russia are working in conditions of slavery in factories and as public drivers. These workers are vulnerable to sex trafficking and forced labor. The entry of migrants into the country is facilitated by the Russian officials. Other officials are even bribed not to investigate or give a false report on human trafficking crimes. As a destination, source, and transit country for victims of trafficking, Russia has not done much to protect human trafficking.

Venezuela

More than half the people trafficked out of Venezuela are adults, 26% are young girls, and boys are 19%. The victims are lured by the promise of well-paying jobs and better working conditions but end up in countries where traffickers force them into prostitution and forced labor. Venezuela has done very little to punish or prevent trafficking despite having strict laws against it. Since 2013, only three people have been convicted under the human trafficking law.

Kuwait

Kuwait is a destination country for trafficked persons who are mainly subjected to forced labor. Men and women who migrate to Kuwait voluntarily from other parts of the world such as Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia to look for employment are often vulnerable to sexual abuse and forced labor. Because of the perilous conditions in Kuwait, several countries have restricted their women from moving to Kuwait.

Libya

Libya is a destination and transit country for trafficked persons, mainly from sub-Saharan Africa. It is also a source country for Libyan children subjected to an armed militia within the country. These armed militias recruit and use children as young as below 18 years old. The children are also exposed to sexual violence. The human trafficking crimes in the country are promoted by the political instability and lack of government oversight.

Yemen

Yemen is a source country for children and adults subjected to forced labor and sex trafficking. Human trafficking has been promoted by violent conflicts and lack of rule of law. Yemeni boys have been subjected to forced labor after migrating to Saudi Arabia and Oman. Here, they are forced into sex trafficking and drug smuggling activities.

Zimbabwe

Women and young girls living in Zimbabwean towns close to the borders are subjected to sex trafficking. The men are also subjected to forced labor in domestic service and agriculture, especially in rural areas. Children and relatives from rural areas are recruited by their family members living in the cities and subjected to domestic servitude. Many Zimbabweans migrate to South Africa with the help of taxi drivers in search of a better life. Unfortunately, many are later subjected to forced labor and prostitution.

Trafficking in Person Report (TIP)

Trafficking in Person Report (TIP) focuses on the ways in which the communities and countries can collectively and proactively address the problem of human trafficking. TIP is a diplomatic tool used by the government of the US to engage foreign governments on issues surrounding human trafficking. In the report, each country is placed onto one of the three tiers based on the effort by the government to comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking.

Which Country Has the Most Human Trafficking?

Four countries are singled out as the nation’s most susceptible to human trafficking. They are Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Iran, and North Korea.

Worst Countries For Human Trafficking Today

Rank	Country	Years on the Tier 3 List of the Trafficking in Persons Report
1	Equatorial Guinea	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
2	Eritrea	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
3	Iran	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
4	North Korea	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
5	Central African Republic	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
6	Mauritania	2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
7	Syria	2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
8	Algeria	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016
9	DR Congo	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2019
10	Guinea-Bissau	2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017
11	Papua New Guinea	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2018, 2019
12	Russia	2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
13	Venezuela	2011, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
14	Kuwait	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015
15	Libya	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015
16	Sudan	2011, 2012, 2013, 2016, 2017
17	Yemen	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015
18	Zimbabwe	2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016
19	Belarus	2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
20	Belize	2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
21	Burundi	2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
22	Comoros	2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
23	Cuba	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014
24	Saudia Arabia	2011, 2012, 2013, 2014
25	South Sudan	2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
26	Turkmenistan	2011, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
27	Uzbekistan	2013, 2014, 2016, 2017
28	China	2013, 2017, 2018, 2019
29	Gambia	2014, 2015, 2016
30	Congo	2017, 2018, 2019
31	Madagascar	2011, 2012
32	Marshall Islands	2015, 2016
33	Thailand	2014, 2015
34	Bolivia	2018, 2019
35	Burma	2011
36	Djibouti	2016
37	Dominican Republic	2011
38	Gabon	2018, 2019
39	Guinea	2017
40	Haiti	2016
41	Laos	2018, 2019
42	Lebanon	2011
43	Malaysia	2014
44	Mali	2017
45	Micronesia	2011
46	Suriname	2016

source https://fourteen.online/worlds-top-worst-countries-for-human-trafficking/

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